Operation Timber Sycamore Arming Jihadist Rebels in Syria Was One of the Epic CIA Criminal Covert Operations

Will Congress ever hold the CIA to account for this and other crimes by ordering a Church Committee-type investigation?

[This article, coinciding with the one year anniversary of the Syrian “revolution,” is part of a series of articles on Syria that discusses the Syrian “revolution” and U.S. regime-change operations and their disastrous consequences going back to the 1940s. See other articles in the series here, here, here, here, and here.—Editors]

In August 2017, The New York Times reported on the Trump administration’s shutting down what it termed “one of the costliest covert action programs in the history of the CIA”—the $1 billion Operation Timber Sycamore, a four-year operation initiated by President Barack Obama to arm and train Syrian rebels trying to overthrow the Assad government.

Until that time, Operation Timber Sycamore, which at least one government official compared to Charlie Wilson’s war^[1]—the CIA’s training of mujahadin soldiers to expel the Soviet Union from Afghanistan—was largely unknown to the American public.

The Times claimed that Timber Sycamore had had periods of success, such as in 2015 when “rebels using tank-destroying missiles, supplied by the C.I.A. and also Saudi Arabia, routed government forces in northern Syria.”

However, it was acknowledged that “some of the C.I.A.-supplied weapons had ended up in the hands of a rebel group tied to Al Qaeda,” which the Times said “sapped political support for the program.”^[2] 

Prior to commissioning Operation Timber Sycamore, President Barack Obama ordered a study of the history of the CIA’s covert arming of rebel groups, which determined that there were only one or two instances of “successful proxy wars.”

Despite the failure of the CIA’s secret wars from Albania in the late 1940s through Angola in the 1970s, and 1980s, Obama assigned the CIA to train militants under Timber Sycamore in Turkey and Jordan.^[3]

Some of the weaponry was routed through NGO’s or humanitarian relief organizations.^[4] Seventeen countries were involved.

Operation Timber Sycamore was carried out primarily in Jordan and Turkey^[5] but an additional fifteen countries were involved.

The goal was to overthrow Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, a secular nationalist who was targeted for regime change because he resisted U.S. and Israeli hegemonic designs in the Middle East, allied with Russia and Iran, and rejected the building of an oil pipeline that would have served U.S. oil interests.^[6]

In December 2024, the U.S. regime-change operation succeeded after Syria had been devastated by years of war and sanctions, and Assad fled to Russia.

His replacement, Mohammad al-Jolani, had been placed on a State Department terrorist list in 2017 as a member of an al-Qaeda offshoot (Hayat Tahrir al-Sham) and carried out pogroms targeting Shia Alawites who supported Assad.^[7]

Unlike Assad, al-Jolani enacted policies that were favorable to U.S. foreign policy interests and released a new map of Syria that excluded the Golan Heights, thereby effectively ceding it to Israel.

The weapons that were supplied to jihadist rebels under Timber Sycamore were bought in the Balkans and elsewhere around Eastern Europe including Bulgaria, and flown in through CIA subsidiary aircraft and Silk Way Airlines, an Azerbaijani public company of cargo planes under oversight of the Israeli government.^[8]

To help advance Timber Sycamore, the Obama administration forged closer relations with Bulgarian leader Boyko Borisov who was a mafia lord. Arms were procured through the CIA’s bolstering its connection to Eastern Europe’s criminal underground.^[9]

U.S. arms manufacturers that shipped high-grade military weapons included Orbital ATK (bought in 2018 by Northrop Grumman) and Chemring Military Products, which also supplied the Afghan National Police.^[10]

An article in The Canberra Times stated that 2,000 tons of Eastern European-manufactured weapons had been delivered to Aqaba alone by April 2016.^[11]

Qatar and the UAE assisted in covert arms supplies, along with Saudi Arabia, which contributed both weapons and large sums of money—around $700 million per year (40% of the Syrian state’s pre-war defense budget).^[12]

CIA paramilitary operatives trained rebels in basic infantry skills and to use Kalashnikovs, mortars, antitank guided missiles and other weapons provided them also with $200 cash. They further provided media training to help the rebels promote their “achievements” on social media.^[13]

U.S. Ambassador to Libya Christopher Stevens oversaw a covert arms-supply pipeline from Libya. Ships from there delivered TOWs, surface-to-air missiles, and other high-tech weaponry to the port of Iskenderun in southern Turkey.^[14]

To limit appearances of its wide-scale intervention in Syria, Turkey outsourced military training operations to a private military company called SADAT International Defense Consultancy.^[15]

The same approach was adopted by the Obama and Trump administrations, which bolstered Timber Sycamore by contracting private mercenary companies to carry out military training, weapons supply, intelligence analysis and other covert military operations in Syria.

One of the companies that received a $10 million Pentagon contract for intelligence analysis in 2016, Six3 Intelligence Solutions, was subsequently acquired by CACI International, which was ordered by a U.S. federal judge to pay $42 million in damages because of the role of its employees in torturing captives at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq following the Bush administration’s invasion of Iraq.^[16]

The New York Times reported that some Jordanian intelligence officers pilfered stockpiles of weapons the CIA had shipped for the Syrian rebels, selling them on the black market.

A Jordanian police captain, Anwar Abu Zaid, shot and killed three American soldiers who had been training Syrian rebels as part of the CIA program.^[17]

Another New York Times article quoted from Hassan Aboud, commander of Suquor al-Sham, an Islamist group known to carry out suicide bombings receiving weapons under Timber Sycamore, who said that there were “fake Free Syrian Army (FSA) brigades claiming to be revolutionaries,” who when they got weapons sold them on the black market.^[18]

Obama administration officials confirmed to The New York Times that senior White House officials were regularly briefed on the arms shipments carried out under Timber Sycamore.^[19] The briefings included reports that the CIA-trained rebels had summarily executed prisoners and committed other violations of the rules of armed conflict.

John Brennan, Obama’s last CIA director who was close to Saudi spy chief Prince Mohammed bin Nayef from his time as the CIA’s Riyadh Station Chief in the 1990s, remained a vigorous defender of Timber Sycamore despite alleged divisions inside the spy agency about Timber Sycamore’s effectiveness.^[20]

One top official justified the program on the ground that the Gulf Arab States, Turkey and Saudi Arabia “were going to do it one way or another. They weren’t asking for a ‘Mother, may I?’ from us. But if we could help them in certain ways, they’d appreciate that.”^[21]

These kinds of spurious arguments received almost no pushback in Congress. Senator Ron Wyden (D-OR), a member of the Senate Intelligence Committee who is considered on the dovish end of the political spectrum, raised questions about why the U.S. needed Saudi money forTimber Sycamore and demanded greater transparency but never questioned the underlying program.^[22]

According to CIA-linked researcher Charles Lister, there were at least 50 vetted rebel groups fighting in Syria that received weapons or training through Timber Sycamore. All of them, he said, worked with the al-Qaeda-linked al-Nusra Front because they were considered to be very good on the battlefield.^[23]

David Ignatius wrote in The Washington Post that a knowledgeable official estimated that CIA-backed fighters trained under Timber Sycamore may have killed or wounded 100,000 Syrian soldiers and their allies between 2013 and 2017.^[24]

A British trainer complained to Harper’s Magazine correspondent Charles Glass that Timber Sycamore was benefiting religious fanatics more than any moderate, secular oppositionists.

A Green Beret associated with the training program in Turkey admitted “a good 95 percent of them [rebels receiving arms and training under Timber Sycamore] were either working with terrorist organizations or were sympathetic to them.”^[25]

Some adopted suicide bombings and tortured and beheaded captives. Others raped girls because their fathers refused to give them money or waterboarded and whipped people who refused to support them.^[26]

A leading recipient of CIA support, the Free Syrian Army (FSA), was “little more than a cover for the al-Qaeda affiliated al-Nusra,” according to the above quoted Green Beret.^[27]

The FSA’s ranks were bolstered by jihadists that came to fight with them from Chechnya, Afghanistan, Algeria and China (Uyghur Muslims).^[28]

Journalist Max Blumenthal reported that one of the rebel groups that was trained and equipped under Timber Sycamore was Nour al-Din al Zenki, a Salafist fighting unit founded by Sheikh Tawfiq Shahabuddin, who was singled out by Amnesty International for carrying out a wave of kidnappings and torturing activists and journalists in rebel-held Aleppo.

The neo-conservative Institute for the Study of War listed al-Zenki as a “moderate rebel force,” though a video captured them sawing off the head of a Palestinian captive who had been fighting for Assad’s forces and dangling it before a cell phone camera.^[29]

They also killed homosexuals by throwing them off of rooftops.^[30]

Another “moderate rebel” group financed under Timber Sycamore, Ahrar al-Sham, was headed by Abu Khalid al-Suri, who had fought alongside Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan during CIA-backed operations against the Soviet Union in the 1980s and was named by a Spanish court as a key figure in orchestrating al-Qaeda’s Madrid train bombing in 2004.^[31]

Incredibly, as reported by the Los Angeles Times in 2016, rebel groups supported by the CIA were fighting groups being armed by the Pentagon in a separate program from Timber Sycamore.^[32]

None of the groups was actually moderate.

Joe Biden told students at the Harvard Kennedy School in October 2014 “our biggest problem was our allies. The Turks…the Saudis, the Emirates, etc., what were they doing? They were so determined to take down Assad and essentially have a proxy Sunni-Shia war, what did they do? They poured hundreds of millions of dollars and tens, thousands of tons of weapons into anyone who would fight against Assad. Except that the people who were being supplied were al-Nusra and al-Qaeda and the extremist elements of jihadis coming from other parts of the world.”^[33]

Biden’s admission about the lack of “moderate rebels” prompted the Obama administration to refocus military operations in Syria toward defeating al-Qaeda and ISIS, commensurate with the goals of the Global War on Terror.^[34]

However, the central goal remained regime change, targeting Assad and the reduction of Iranian influence in Syria and in the rest of the Middle East.^[35]

The Voltaire Network reported that, at the end of the Obama administration, Timber Sycamore was privatized and came to be coordinated by Kohlberg, Kravis, Roberts (KKR), a hundred-billion-dollar private Wall Street equity firm which appointed General David Petraeus, the original coordinator of Timber Sycamore, as partner and Chairman of the KKR Global Institute, a private intelligence agency.^[36]

KKR’s involvement exemplifies the long nexus between Wall Street and the CIA and Wall Street’s support for covert operations and imperialistic intervention in the Middle East designed to bring profits to corporate investors, weapons contractors, big oil companies and Wall Street banks.

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1. 
   

   Robin Wright, “Our High Priced Mercenaries in Syria,” The New Yorker, September 17, 2016, https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/our-high-priced-mercenaries-in-syria. Charlie Wilson was a congressman (D-TX) who championed the CIA operations in Afghanistan and was the focus of a blockbuster Hollywood movie starring Tom Hanks that was based on Charlie Crile’s book, Charlie Wilson’s War. ↑

   
   
2. 
   

   Mark Mazzetti, Adam Goldman and Michael S. Schmidt, “Behind the Sudden Death of a $1 Billion Secret C.I.A. War in Syria,” The New York Times, August 2, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/02/world/middleeast/cia-syria-rebel-arm-train-trump.html ↑

   
   
3. 
   

   Charles Glass, Syria Civil War to Holy War? (New York: OR Books, 2025), 210. In his 2006 book, State of Denial, journalist Bob Woodward recounted a 2003 conversation in which George J. Tenet, then the CIA director, told Condoleezza Rice, then the national security adviser, “We created the Jordanian intelligence service, and now we own it.” ↑

   
   
4. 
   

   Eric McRoberts, Timber Sycamore: Obama’s War in Syria (self published, 2025). Some weapons were air dropped, others brought in through military convoys. The CIA also supplied critical communications equipment and basic necessities to the rebels. McRoberts points out that the lack of centralized control of the supply chain created huge opportunities for corruption. ↑

   
   
5. 
   

   In his 2006 book, State of Denial, journalist Bob Woodward recounted a 2003 conversation in which George Tenet, then the CIA director, told Condoleezza Rice, then the national security adviser, “We created the Jordanian intelligence service, and now we own it.” ↑

   
   
6. 
   

   The Israelis were intent on controlling Syria so they could build an oil pipeline that would provide a transit route for newly discovered Israeli oil and natural gas deposits and that could help Israel become energy independent. See Charlotte Dennett, Follow the Pipelines: Uncovering the Mystery of a Lost Spy and the Deadly Politics of the Great Game for Oil, foreword by Daniel Dennett (White River Junction, VT: Green River Publishing, 2020), 216, 2177. In 2014, the Israeli government gave a subsidiary of Genie Oil the rights to oil drilling in the Israeli occupied Golan Heights in Syria. Investors in Genie oil included Dick Cheney, Rupert Murdoch, former CIA Director James Woolsey and Lord Rothschild. True News noted that U.S. and NATO intervention in Syria appeared to be “an insurance play for the successful acquisition of the oil-rich Golan Heights, and the deployment of their competing Eurasia gas pipeline to Europe; an asset which would generate trillions of dollars of revenue and energy independence for Israel for the next hundred years.” ↑

   
   
7. 
   

   The “blazer-wearing revolutionary,” as CNN called him, had been imprisoned from 2006 to 2011 at Abu Ghraib and other U.S. military prisons for supporting al-Qaeda in Iraq. Conveniently, al-Jolani was released on the eve of the 2011 U.S.-backed uprising against Assad, fueling suspicion that he had somehow been turned and transformed into a CIA/MI6/Mossad agent while in custody. ↑

   
   
8. 
   “Operation Timber Sycamore Continues,” Voltaire Network, December 14, 2018, https://www.voltairenet.org/article204373; Thierry Meyssan, “Billions of dollars’ worth of arms against Syria,” Voltaire Network, July 18, 2017, . https://www.voltairenet.org/article197144.html. As part of the quid pro quo, the U.S. supplied the corrupt Azerbaijani government with $100 million per year in arms, despite its genocidal assault on the people of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh). See Jeremy Kuzmarov, “There is a Country that Receives $100 Million in Military Aid per Year from the Biden Administration While It Engages in Ethnic Cleansing and Literally Tries to Starve Another People to Death,” CovertAction Magazine, January 23, 2023, https://covertactionmagazine.com/2023/01/23/there-is-a-country-that-receives-100-million-in-military-aid-per-year-from-the-biden-administration-while-it-engages-in-ethnic-cleansing-and-literally-tries-to-starve-another-people-to-death/. Some weapons were also purchased from Croatia and Ukraine.
   

   ↑

   
   
9. 
   

   “Bulgarian Killer Testified About PM Borisov’s Mafia Ties,” Crime, November 26, 2011; Simon Chase and Ralph Pezullo, Zero Footprint: The True Story of a Private Military Contractor’s Covert Assignments in Syria, Libya, and the World’s Most Dangerous Places (Boston: Little, Brown Co., 206), 203, 204. Chase recounts procuring ars through a former member of the Bulgarian secret police whom he said was “now a member of the local mafia, which made its money from drug and sex trafficking, cigarette smuggling and extortion.” ↑

   
   
10. 
    

    “350 diplomatic flights carry weapons for terrorists,” https://trud.bg/a/articles/350-diplomatic-flights-carry-weapons-for-terrorists. The cover on Bulgaria’s involvement in Timber Sycamore was blown in June 2015 when Francis Norvello, a 41-year-old American employee of the private mercenary firm Purple Shovel, was killed in a blast when a rocket-propelled grenade malfunctioned at a military range near the village of Anevo, Bulgaria. Two other Americans and two Bulgarians were also injured. The U.S. Embassy in Bulgaria then released a statement announcing that the U.S. government contractors were working on a U.S. military program to train and equip moderate rebels in Syria. ↑

    
    
11. 
    

    Paul Malone, “Save us from today’s Dr Strangeloves,” The Sydney Herald, July 6, 2016, https://www.smh.com.au/opinion/save-us-from-todays-dr-strangeloves-20160707-gq0d74.html ↑

    
    
12. 
    

    A. B. Abrams, World War in Syria: Global Conflict on Middle Eastern Battlefields (Atlanta: Clarity Press, 2021), 384. ↑

    
    
13. 
    

    Jonathan Hackett, “CovertAction in Irregular Wars: Unraveling the Case of Timber Sycamore in Syria (2012-2017)” Small Wars Journal, March 4, 2025; Oysten H. Rolandsen and Kjeil Selvik, “Disposable Rebels: U.S. Military Assistance to Insurgents in the Syrian Civil War,” Mediterranean Politics, March 2, 2023. ↑

    
    
14. 
    

    Charles Glass, “‘Tell Me How This Ends’: America’s muddled involvement with Syria,” Harper’s Magazine, February 2019. ↑

    
    
15. 
    

    Matt Powers, “Making Sense of SADAT, Turkey’s Private Military Company,” War on the Rocks, October 8, 2021, https://warontherocks.com/2021/10/making-sense-of-sadat-turkeys-private-military-company/. A UN report found that SADAT—which was nicknamed the “Turkish Wagner” after the Russian private military company—sent 5,000 Syrian mercenaries to fight in Libya’s civil war, which erupted after the U.S.-NATO intervention in Libya. ↑

    
    
16. 
    

    Martin Berger, “Operation Timber Sycamore and Washington’s Secret War on Syria,” MintPress News, December 1, 2016, https://www.mintpressnews.com/operation-timber-sycamore-washingtons-secret-war-syria/222692/; Kanishka Singh, “Jury finds US defense contractor liable in torture at Abu Ghraib prison,” Reuters, November 12, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/jury-finds-us-defense-contractor-liable-torture-abu-ghraib-prison-2024-11-12/. On the importance of private military contractors to America’s forever wars in the 21^st century, see Jeremy Kuzmarov, “‘Distancing Acts’: Private Mercenaries And The War On Terror In American Foreign Policy,” Asia-Pacific Journal, December 21, 2014, https://apjjf.org/2014/12/52/jeremy-kuzmarov/4241 ↑

    
    
17. 
    

    Mazzetti, Goldman and Schmidt, “Behind the Sudden Death of a $1 Billion Secret CIA War in Syria”; Mark Mazzetti and Ali Younes, “C.I.A. Arms for Syrian Rebels Supplied Black Market, Officials Say,” The New York Times, June 26, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/27/world/middleeast/cia-arms-for-syrian-rebels-supplied-black-market-officials-say.html. The Jordanian officers who were part of the scheme reaped a windfall from the weapons sales, using the money to buy expensive SUVs, iPhones and other luxury items. ↑

    
    
18. 
    

    C. J. Chivers and Eric Schmitt, “Arms Airlift to Syria Rebels Expands, With Aid from C.I.A.,” The New York Times, March 24, 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/world/middleeast/arms-airlift-to-syrian-rebels-expands-with-cia-aid.html. Soquor al Sham was further implicated in the torture and murder of detainees. ↑

    
    
19. 
    

    Chivers and Schmitt, “Arms Airlift to Syria Rebels Expands, With Aid from C.I.A.” ↑

    
    
20. 
    

    Mazzetti, Goldman and Schmidt, “Behind the Sudden Death of a $1 Billion Secret CIA War in Syria.” ↑

    
    
21. 
    

    Chivers and Schmitt, “Arms Airlift to Syria Rebels Expands, With Aid from C.I.A.” ↑

    
    
22. 
    

    Mark Mazzetti and Matt Apuzzo, “U.S. Relies Heavily on Saudi Money to Support Syrian Rebels,” The New York Times, January 23, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/24/world/middleeast/us-relies-heavily-on-saudi-money-to-support-syrian-rebels.html ↑

    
    
23. 
    

    Charles Lister, “Al Qaeda Reaps Rewards of U.S. Policy Failures in Syria,” The Daily Beast, July 6, 2018, https://www.thedailybeast.com/al-qaeda-reaps-rewards-of-us-policy-failures-on-syria/; Glass, “‘Tell Me How This Ends.’” ↑

    
    
24. 
    

    David Ignatius, “What the demise of the CIA’s anti-Assad program means,” The Washington Post, July 20, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/what-the-demise-of-the-cias-anti-assad-program-means/2017/07/20/f6467240-6d87-11e7-b9e2-2056e768a7e5_story.html ↑

    
    
25. 
    

    Dr. Christina Lin, “How the US Ends Up Training al-Qaeda and ISIS Collaborators,” ISPSW Strategy Series: Focus on Defense and International Security, December 2016. ↑

    
    
26. 
    

    Glass, “‘Tell Me How This Ends’”; Tulsi Gabbard, “The Syrian People Desperately Want Peace,” Substack, January 24, 2017, https://medium.com/@TulsiGabbard/the-syrian-people-desperately-want-peace-e308f1777a34. Gabbard started the Stop Arming the Terrorists Act in Congress. ↑

    
    
27. 
    

    Lin, “How the US Ends Up Training al-Qaeda and ISIS Collaborators.” ↑

    
    
28. 
    

    Glass, “‘Tell Me How This Ends’”; Stephen Gowans, Washington’s Long War on Syria (Montreal: Baraka Books, 2017), 145. ↑

    
    
29. 
    

    Max Blumenthal, The Management of Savagery: How America’s National Security State Fueled the Rise of Al Qaeda, ISIS, and Donald Trump (London: Verso, 2019), 193, 194. ↑

    
    
30. 
    

    In human rights reports, al-Zenki was accused of beheading children, killing homosexuals by throwing them from heights, kidnapping journalists for ransom, looting and plundering. ↑

    
    
31. 
    

    Blumenthal, The Management of Savagery, 197. ↑

    
    
32. 
    

    Nabih Bulos, W. J. Hennigan, and Brian Bennett ”In Syria, militias armed by the Pentagon fight those armed by the CIA,” Los Angeles Times, March 27, 2016, at https://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-cia-pentagon-isis-20160327-story.html ↑

    
    
33. 
    

    Glass, “‘Tell Me How This Ends’”; Barbara Plett Usher, “Joe Biden apologised over IS remarks, but was he right?” BBC, October 7, 2014, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-29528482. Douglas Laux, a key CIA point man for Timber Sycamore, also stated explicitly that there were “no moderates.” Blumenthal, The Management of Savagery, 173. ↑

    
    
34. 
    

    Glass, “‘Tell Me How This Ends.’” ↑

    
    
35. 
    

    A first-hand account by a U.S. Special Forces soldier deployed to Syria in 2018 emphasized his involvement in firefights with Syrian army forces and Wagner group Russian mercenaries who had been sent into the country to fortify the Syrian government and to fight against ISIS. Ironically, the U.S. and Russian governments both told their citizens they were fighting ISIS in Syria when there were times when they were actually fighting each other! ↑

    
    
36. 
    

    “Operation ‘Timber Sycamore’ continues,” December 14, 2018, Voltaire Network, https://www.voltairenet.org”/article204373. A top government official told The New York Times in 2013 that Petraeus, the CIA director until November 2013, was “instrumental in helping to get this aviation network [for arms supplies under Timber Sycamore] moving and had prodded various countries to work together on it.” KKR was touting its growing investments in the Middle East in 2025 and how the Middle East presented growing investment opportunities. ↑

    
    

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